Unlocking Learning: Exploring Its Meaning, Nature, and Diverse Types
Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types of Learning
*Meaning and Nature*:
Learning is a key process in human behaviour. All living is learning. If we compare the simple, crude ways in which a child feels and behaves, with the complex modes of adult behaviour, his skills, habits, thought, sentiments and the like- we will know what difference learning has made to the individual.
The individual is constantly interacting with and influenced by the environment. This experience makes him to change or modify his behaviour in order to deal effectively with it. Therefore, learning is a change in behaviour, influenced by previous behaviour. As stated above the skills, knowledge, habits, attitudes, interests and other personality characteristics are all the result of learning.
a. Learning is a change in behaviour—better or worse.
b. It is a change that takes place through practice or experience, but changes due to growth or maturation are not learning.
c. This change in behaviour must be relatively permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.
All learning involves activities. These activities involve either physical or mental activities. They may be simple mental activities or complex, involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the mental activities may be very simple involving one or two activities of mind or complex which involve higher mental activities.
What activities are learned by the individual refer to types of learning. For example, habits, skills, facts, etc. There are different types of learning. Some of the important and common learning activities are explained here.
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*Types of Learning*:
1. *Motor learning*: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination.
2. *Verbal learning*: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication.
3. *Concept learning*: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognising, identifying things.
4. *Discrimination learning*: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
5. *Learning of principles*: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
6. *Problem solving*: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people.
7. *Attitude learning*: Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc.
Learning Strategies
Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning, sometimes called small-group learning, is an instructional strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task. The task can be as simple as solving a multi-step math problem together, or as complex as developing a design for a new kind of school. In some cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role assignments.
*According to David Johnson and Roger Johnson (1999), there are five basic elements that allow successful small-group learning*:
- *Positive interdependence*: Students feel responsible for their own and the group's effort.
- *Face-to-face interaction*: Students encourage and support one another; the environment encourages discussion and eye contact.
- *Individual and group accountability*: Each student is responsible for doing their part; the group is accountable for meeting its goal.
- *Group behaviors*: Group members gain direct instruction in the interpersonal, social, and collaborative skills needed to work with others occurs.
- *Group processing*: Group members analyze their own and the group's ability to work together.
Cooperative learning changes students' and teachers' roles in classrooms. The ownership of teaching and learning is shared by groups of students, and is no longer the sole responsibility of the teacher. The authority of setting goals, assessing learning, and facilitating learning is shared by all. Students have more opportunities to actively participate in their learning, question and challenge each other, share and discuss their ideas, and internalize their learning. Along with improving academic learning, cooperative learning helps students engage in thoughtful discourse and examine different perspectives, and it has been proven to increase students' self-esteem, motivation, and empathy.
Some challenges of using cooperative learning include releasing the control of learning, managing noise levels, resolving conflicts, and assessing student learning. Carefully structured activities can help students learn the skills to work together successfully, and structured discussion and reflection on group process can help avoid some problems.
*Importance of Cooperative learning*
The authors of Classroom Instruction that Works cite research showing that organizing students in cooperative learning groups can lead to a gain as high as 28 percentiles in measured student achievement (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock 2001).
Other researchers report that cooperation typically results in higher group and individual achievement, healthier relationships with peers, more metacognition, and greater psychological health and self-esteem (Johnson and Johnson 1989).
When implemented well, cooperative learning encourages achievement, student discussion, active learning, student confidence, and motivation. The skills students develop while collaborating with others are different from the skills students develop while working independently. As more businesses organize employees into teams and task forces, the skills necessary to be a "team player" (e.g., verbalizing and justifying ideas, handling conflicts, collaborating, building consensus, and disagreeing politely) are becoming more valuable and useful. Using cooperative groups to accomplish academic tasks not only provides opportunities for students to develop interpersonal skills but also gives them authentic experiences that will help them be successful in their future careers.
*Cooperative learning in action*
*Beginning to Work in Groups*
In classrooms where students are not familiar with working together in small groups, start with short, highly-structured activities. It will take time to develop a respectful and safe classroom community. Successful cooperative groups depend on students who respect each other, listen to one another, and feel safe enough to share their thoughts and feelings. You can help students learn the skills needed to work in groups by starting with short, structured lessons aimed at fostering turn-taking, involving all students in the discussion, and clarifying the roles, rights, and responsibilities of group members.
One way to introduce cooperative groups is to work with one group to get started, and allow the rest of the students to watch the group as they engage in a discussion – a "fishbowl" experience. Intervene when necessary to keep the thoughtful discussion going. With the large group, discuss effective strategies that the small group is using or should be using to continue and expand the discussion.
When beginning to use cooperative learning with students, it is also important to establish team norms. Team norms are guidelines or rules governing how group members agree to work together. Norms for working in groups tend to be very different from traditional classroom norms. For example, in a traditional classroom, students complete their own work. In cooperative classrooms, students work with others to complete tasks. Have students discuss and develop the norms that they will follow during group work. Team norms, if designed well, can help to create a safe and supportive atmosphere.
- *We always treat one another with respect.*
- *We always encourage new ideas and value the consideration of all suggestions.*
- *We always justify our opinions to the team.*
- *We always make decisions as a team.*
* Cooperative learning in class*
Students should be grouped for instruction to maximize opportunities to learn, and the type of grouping can produce different results based on the circumstances. Establish groups using a variety of criteria, such as social skills, academic skills, student interests, and instructional objectives.
Select the academic and collaborative objectives. For example, "Students will present their opinion of a candidate, supported with facts. Students will work cooperatively in groups of four, taking turns when talking."
Teachers should model positive interpersonal skills, have students practice the skills, and encourage the students to reflect on how effectively they are performing the skills.
*Teachers' instruction for cooperative learning*
Once groups have been determined, the most important phase begins. Instruction should be based on solid content, with grouping used to enhance and customize student learning. Students should understand the objectives, instructional tasks, and criteria for success. Review and assign student roles in order to smooth the transition to cooperative learning groups. During instruction, monitor groups and reinforce collaborative behaviors, conduct observations, assess social skills, or interview students.
After instruction, assessments may include paper and pencil achievement tests and/or measures of actual student performance or group products. Develop a way to assess both group and individual accountability. After working in groups, students should engage in group processing activities where they discuss the interpersonal skills that influence their effectiveness in working together.
Be sure to schedule a time for students to explain to the class how they completed a task or solved a problem, as different groups may have developed different solutions. Explaining their group's process is an important skill for students to develop. In addition, the whole class benefits from the range of ideas from each group.
You will need to decide how students and groups will be made accountable for their learning. In collaborative classrooms, it is often difficult to assign individual grades. Some teachers give "group" grades that each student receives, but this can be problematic if a few students do the majority of the work within a group. Giving each member both an individual and a group grade is another option. Each student can receive a grade for the group task and can be responsible for a subtask, which is graded as well. Some teachers average the academic grade with a "group performance" grade. This makes group interactions and processes as significant as academics. If you are uncomfortable with this, a good solution is to have students complete an individual task after the cooperative learning activity, such as writing a reflection piece about what they learned and how their group worked to complete the task. This may be a preferable way to evaluate students because it can be used as an assessment of student learning, metacognition, and group processing. Another possibility is to have individual students each complete a final draft of a report that the group has started.
*Student Roles in cooperative learning*
Some tasks are complex and may benefit from clear roles and responsibilities assigned to each student within a group. Create team roles that are simple, clear, and important. Roles that are frivolous, unclear, or too complex may frustrate one or more team members. Some sample roles are:
- *Organizer - provides the group with the overall process structure*
- *Recorder - writes down important information (e.g., directions or group work)*
- *Checker - Makes sure that all team members understand the concepts and the team's conclusions.*
- *Questioner - generates questions and involves all students*
- *Assessor - evaluates the progress of each work session*
- *Encourager - models and reinforces appropriate social skills*
- *Summarizer - Restates the team's conclusions or answers.*
- *Spokesperson - represents the group and presents group work to rest of the class*
- *Timekeeper - keeps group on task and on time*
- *Team facilitator - Moderates discussions, keeps the team on schedule, ensures that work is completed by all, and makes sure that all have the opportunity to participate and learn.?*
- *Elaborator - Relates the discussion with prior concepts and knowledge.*
- *Research runner - Gets needed materials and is the liaison between teams and between their team and the instructor.*
*Challenging Group Dynamics*
Like all groups of people trying to work together, student groups sometimes run into difficulties. Be proactive and have ways prepared to prevent or solve problems. Some suggestions include:
- *Brainstorm how groups could handle a specific difficult situation, such as one person not letting others talk. Have each group come up with a solution to the problem.*
- *Use a checklist to help students resolve conflicts. The checklist could have students assess how they are listening to each other, working together, and respecting each participant.*
- *Give clear written guidelines for each student role. Make sure that roles are clear before the activity begins.*
- *Establish a specific signal if the noise level is too high. Award points to each group for working quietly.*
- *Have students use their journals to record how they would like their group to implement a specific collaborative skill.* For example, if students know that the collaborative skill they will work on in their small group is "disagreeing nicely" they could write down what they could say. They could also reflect on why that skill is important to them and to the group.
*Group Learning*
Two widely accepted principles about learning—learners construct their own knowledge and learning is an inherently social phenomenon—support the use of group learning. Working in small groups provides learners with opportunities to articulate ideas and understandings, uncover assumptions and misconceptions, and negotiate with others to create products or reach consensus. Group activities enable students to discover deeper the content and improve thinking skills. The most effective use of group work is that which engages students with higher-level content that is thought-provoking, difficult to understand, or has multiple interpretations.
*Learning Process in group*
The terms collaborative learning and cooperative learning are often used interchangeably, but a distinction is helpful. Collaborative learning highlights the contributions of individual group members, stresses the sharing of authority, and leads to dialog and consensus building on topics without a clear right and wrong answer. Group governance and group processing remain in the hands of the students (Panitz, 1997). Cooperative learning is often thought of as a subset of collaborative learning that involves more teacher intervention. The instructor designs the task and a group structure for accomplishing the task, including the assignment of roles to group members. Students then interact under specific conditions set up by the teacher: positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual account ability, collaborative skills, and group processing (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1998). Both collaborative and cooperative learning can take place with informal and formal groups, however both settings will require that the instructor plans carefully how the assignment is designed, monitored, and assessed.
*Group Structure*
*Short-term groups*These are temporary groups, with little or no time spent on assigning people to groups, getting into groups, or assigning roles. They last one session or less and are used to ensure cognitive processing and engagement in learning. Some informal short-term group activities include the following:
- *Think-Pair-Share*: Students are given a prompt (a question, problem, visual, etc.), and asked to think about the prompt individually and jot down ideas. Students then form pairs, talk about their responses, and formulate a joint response. Some pairs are called on to summarize their discussion for the class.
- *Think-Pair-Square*: Same as above, but two pairs of students join together to share and compare the results, rather than moving to a whole group discussion.
- *Turn-To-Your-Neighbor Discussions*: Students “turn to a neighbor” and brainstorm answers to a question or discuss a solution to a problem. Call on students for answers. Ask the class for a show of hands of who agrees or disagrees with an answer.
- *Pair-And-Compare*: During a two to three minute break in lecture, students form pairs and compare notes, rewriting the notes by adding information or correcting as needed.
- *Small-Group Homework Check*: Have students do their homework individually outside of class. During class on the day the assignment is due, have students form groups and then compare their answers to the assignment. The students in each group must agree on answers and turn in a group solution along with their individual work.
- *Jigsaw*: This structure is useful when a topic or problem is complex and involves multiple perspectives. Each group member takes responsibility for one part of the problem, meets with students from other groups who have the same responsibility (expert group), and then teaches his or her part to the members of the original group.
- *Roundtable*: After the group is given a prompt, the group members take turns recording a response to the prompt on a single page that is quickly passed from one member to the next for a specified amount of time.
- *Send-A-Problem*: Problems or issues are identified by the groups or by the instructor. Each group proposes solutions to these problems or issues.
- *Dyadic Essay Confrontation*: In response to an assigned reading, each student writes an essay question and model response to that question. During class, students pair off, exchange essay questions, and each writes a spontaneous response to the question he or she receives. The pairs compare the spontaneous responses with the model responses for the two questions.
These groups are formed by the instructor and may stay together for an extended period of time (weeks or even the entire semester) to work on a broader task or project. One type of formal group is the student team—a stable group that works on major course projects and often involves peer evaluation. Some specific suggestions for getting started with organizing long-term group projects include the following:
- *Develop a clear description of the project and what you expect.*
- *Decide what kinds of team compositions are critical for the project.*
- *Break the project down into smaller pieces, establishing a timeline, and having the teams submit progress reports on their learning and how they are working as a team.*
- *Provide students with a rationale for the team project. Include an explanation of the value and purpose of working as a team, and establish guidelines for how the teams should work together.*
- *Establish clear and fair guidelines for how the team project will be graded.*
*Team Formation*
This depends on your purpose for using groups. Teams usually have three to five students who are assigned to the group randomly or purposefully by you. Capstone projects may require a larger number of students. Student-selected groups are not generally recommended.
*Random Selection*
You can form random teams by any of the following methods:
- *Simply having students “turn-to-your-neighbor” or “form teams of three.”*
- *Counting off—24 students would form groups of four by counting off from one to six. All of the ones would become a group and so on.*
- *Using color-coded cards or playing cards—students pick up cards as they enter class and all students with the same color (or same number) work together.*
For longer or more complex projects, instructors may want to create heterogeneous teams that distribute students into different groups based on ability, strengths, experience, gender, ethnicity, or some other characteristic. Instructors first learn about the students and then form teams according to the plan. You can learn about your students in one or more of the following ways:
Collect student data sheets that include the following:
- *Course-related information*: Major, courses taken in the discipline
- *Experience*: Work, travel
- *Personal information*: Where they live, phone number, e-mail address, interests
- *Administer questionnaires with questions relevant to the project*
- *Strengths*: Self-rating on ability with computers, writing, organization
- *Have students prepare a resume*. Doing this may be most appropriate when the students are likely to have a resume already prepared.
Types of learning styles
Educational psychology theories
Effective learning strategies
Online learning trends
Self-directed learning
Experiential learning methods
Neuroscience of learning
Digital learning platforms
Blended learning models
Cognitive learning theories
Behavioral learning techniques
Adaptive learning systems
Motivation in learning
Learning process stages
Constructivist learning approaches
Meaning of learning
Motor learning
Verbal learning
Concept learning
Discrimination learning
Problem solving
Attitude learning
Cooperative learning
Importance of cooperative learning
Cooperative learning in class
Teachers' instruction for cooperative learning
Assessment by teacher in cooperative learning
Student roles in cooperative learning
Challenging group dynamics
Group learning
Learning process in group
Short term groups
Long term groups
Random selection
Instructor selected teams
Collaborative learning
** FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS
The five basic elements that are required in any cooperative learning lesson are: positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing.
*Q.2. What are the two most popular forms of cooperative learning?*
Two of the most popular forms of cooperative learning activities are the think-pair-share method and the jigsaw method.
*Q.3.What are the seven keys to cooperative learning?*
Kagan based his CL on a single precept: engagement. These principles are referred to as 7 keys: Structures, Teams, Management, Class-building, Teambuilding, Social Skills and PIES.
*Q.4. Who invented cooperative learning?*
David Johnson and Roger Johnson developed the Learning Together models of cooperative learning.
*Q.5. What are the benefits of cooperative learning?*
The benefits of Cooperative Learning are promotion of social interaction, the buildup of student self-confidence, improvement in the collaborative skills of students, improvement in student decision-making skills and positive personal interdependence.
*Q.6. What is the role of the teacher in group learning?*
Good teachers act as facilitators of learning. They plan, guide and manage a group event e.g. a class of students, to meet its goals. By carefully leading the class, facilitators make an action or process easy or easier to understand; creating opportunities for the students to participate and learn from the experience.
*Q.7. How do teachers assign groups?*
Assign groups intentionally (based on skills and/or backgrounds). This strategy minimizes the chance that high ability students will flock together leaving others out, allows you to create more diverse groups, and creates opportunities for students to work with peers they otherwise might not have interacted.
*Q.8. Why group learning is better than individual?*
Group learning helps kids to learn from their peers. This is advantageous because many children understand concepts better when they know from their friends compared to teachers and parents. Collaborative learning also helps them to retain knowledge better. With group learning, kids learn teamwork.
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