Unraveling the Mysteries of Forgetting: The Nature, Theories, Causes, Factors, and Strategies for Minimizing Memory Loss
Forgetting: Nature, Theories, Causes, Factors and Strategies to minimise Forgetting
*FORGETTING – Concept*
Forgetting occurs only when some learning has taken place. If there is no learning then there is no forgetting. Thus forgetting & remembering are two sides of the same coin.
So when we are unable to remember it‘s called forgetting.
Munn: “Forgetting is the loss permanent or temporary of the ability to recall or recognize something learnt earlier”.
Drever: “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience, when attempting to do so or perform an action previously done.
Bhatia: “Forgetting is the failure of an individual to review in consciousness an idea or a group of ideas without the help of original stimulus.”
Thus forgetting is being unable to find the correct information. (from the mind) at the given situation. Forgetting is temporary at times when later we can remember the names & actions whereas forgetting is said to be permanent when in no situation we are able to recall the information.
*Theories of Forgetting*
The five theories of forgetting include:
Theory #1: *Displacement Theory of Forgetting*
The displacement theory describes how forgetting works in short-term memory. Short-term memory has a limited capacity and can only hold a small amount of information—up to about seven items—at one time. Once the memory is full, new information will replace the old one.
Displacement theory plays neatly into the *Multi-Store Model of Memory*. This model shows that while some information reaches long-term memory, other pieces of information in short-term memory storage are simply forgotten.
*Serial Position Effect*
In studies based on the free-recall method, participants are asked to listen to a list of words and then try to remember them. The free recall method, unlike the serial recall method, allows participants to remember words in no particular order. Through these studies, psychologists have discovered that the first and the last items on a list are the easiest ones to remember. They named this phenomenon the Serial Position Effect. Two other effects, the primacy and recency effects, explain why the first and last items are so crucial in memory.
The primacy effect suggests that recalling the first item on the list is simple. At the time they are presented, these initial words don’t yet compete with the subsequent ones for a place in the short-term memory.
The recency effect explains why the participants remember items at the end of the list. These words have not yet been suppressed from short-term memory. The words in the middle of the list, pushed out from the short-term memory by the last words, are much less likely to be recalled.
Examples of the Displacement Theory of Forgetting
Suppose you have just learned a seven-digit phone number when you are given another number to memorize. Your short-term memory doesn’t have the capacity to store both information. In order to recall the new phone number, you’ll have to forget the first one. This isn't always a conscious process, but it can be. The moment you begin to focus on the new set of numbers, the first one seems to "go away" or get confused with the new numbers you are learning.
Another example of the displacement theory of forgetting involves grocery lists. As you walk out the door to the grocery store, your partner tells you that you need to buy "milk, eggs, cheese, flour, and sugar." You try to memorize the whole list, but a lot of it goes away while you are driving to the store. When you arrive, all you can remember is "milk" and "sugar."
Theory #2: *Trace Decay Theory of Forgetting*
The trace decay theory was formed by American psychologist Edward Thorndike in 1914, based on the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus. The theory states that if we don’t access memories, they will fade over time.
When we learn something new, the brain undergoes neurochemical changes called memory traces. Memory retrieval requires us to revisit those traces that the brain formed when encoding the memory. The trace decay theory implies that the length of time between the memory and recalling determines whether we will retain or forget a piece of information. The shorter the time interval, the more we will remember, and vice versa.
*Serial Probe Task*
In 1965, Waugh and Norman put both displacement theory and trace decay theories to the test. They put participants through a "serial probe task." Each participant listened to a long list of letters. Later, the researchers would yell out one of the letters from the list, and the participants would have to name the letter listed after. What they found showed that displacement theory could explain some instances of forgetting, but not all of them.
The interesting part of the results was that when the list was read at a faster pace, participants completed the task more successfully.
*Criticisms and Need for Other Theories of Forgetting*
The trace decay theory, however, doesn’t explain why many people can clearly remember past events, even if they haven’t given them much thought before. Neither does it take into account the role of all the events that have taken place between the learning and the recall of the memory. Just like the serial probe task suggests that displacement theory is not "enough," decay theory fails to cover all instances of forgetting and remembering.
The interference theory concentrates precisely on the aspects of forgetting that decay theory fails to address.
Theory #3: *Interference Theory of Forgetting*
The interference theory was the dominant theory of forgetting throughout the 20th century. It asserts that the ability to remember can be disrupted both by our previous learning and by new information. In essence, we forget because memories interfere with and disrupt one another. For example, by the end of the week, we won’t remember what we ate for breakfast on Monday because we had many other similar meals since then.
The first study on interference was conducted by German psychologist John A. Bergstrom in 1892. He asked participants to sort two decks of word cards into two piles. When the location of one of the piles changed, the first set of sorting rules interfered with learning the new ones, and sorting became slower.
*Proactive interferences* take place when old memories prevent making new ones. This often occurs when memories are created in a similar context or include near-identical items. Remembering a new code for the combination lock might be more difficult than we expect. Our memories of the old code interfere with the new details and make them harder to retain.
*Retroactive interferences* occur when old memories are altered by new ones. Just like with proactive interference, they often happen with two similar sets of memories. Let’s say you used to study Spanish and are now learning French. When you try to speak Spanish, the newly acquired French words may interfere with your previous knowledge.
Theory #4: *Retrieval Failure Theory of Forgetting*
The retrieval failure theory was developed by the Canadian psychologist and cognitive neuroscientist Endel Tulving in 1974. According to this theory, forgetting often involves a failure in memory retrieval. Although the information stored in the long-term memory is not lost, we are unable to retrieve it at a particular moment. A classic example is the tip of the tongue effect when we are unable to remember a familiar name or word.
There are two main reasons for failure in memory retrieval. Encoding failure prevents us from remembering information because it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Or the information may be stored in long-term memory, but we can’t access it because we lack retrieval cues.
*Retrieval cues*
A retrieval cue is a trigger that helps us remember something.
When we create a new memory, we also retain elements of the situation in which the event occurred. These elements will later serve as retrieval cues. Information is more likely to be retrieved from long-term memory with the help of relevant retrieval cues. Conversely, retrieval failure or cue-dependent forgetting may occur when we can’t access memory cues.
*Semantic cues*
Semantic cues are associations with other memories. For example, we might have forgotten everything about a trip we took years ago until we remember visiting a friend in that place. This cue will allow recollecting further details about the trip.
*State-dependent cues*
State-dependent cues are related to our psychological state at the time of the experience, like being very anxious or extremely happy. Finding ourselves in a similar state of mind may help us retrieve some old memories.
*Context-dependent cues*
Context-dependent cues are environmental factors such as sounds, sight, and smell. For instance, witnesses are often taken back to the crime scene that contains environmental cues from when the memory was formed. These cues can help recollect the details of the crime.
Theory #5: *Consolidation Theory of Forgetting*
While the above theories of forgetting concentrate principally on psychological evidence, the consolidation theory is based on the physiological aspects of forgetting. Memory consolidation is the critical process of stabilizing a memory and making it less susceptible to disruptions. Once it is consolidated, memory is moved from short term to a more permanent long-term storage, becoming much more resistant to forgetting.
The term consolidation was coined by Georg Elias Muller and Alfons Pilzecker in 1900. The two German psychologists were also the first to explain the theory of retroactive interference, newly learned material interfering with the retrieval of the old one, in terms of consolidation.
*Other Theories of Forgetting*
These five theories are most frequently mentioned when discussing forgetting, memory, and recall. Psychologists have devised other theories that may be worth looking into. No one theory of forgetting covers all incidences of memory loss and recall, so these theories are valid, too!
*Motivated Theory of Forgetting*
Friedrich Nietzsche was one of the first psychologists to suggest that people intentionally forgot their memories. Typically, these memories are traumatic or shameful. This theory really took off when Freud expanded upon this theory. Freud spoke more about the idea that people unintentionally forgot their memories. This process is called repression and is considered a defense mechanism. Freud, however, believed he could recover repressed memories. Today, psychologists mostly discredit this idea, as the mind can "change" memories with leading questions and other methods.
Still, this motivated theory of forgetting is an important idea in the history of psychology.
*Gestalt Theory of Forgetting*
The Gestalt Theory of Forgetting attempts to explain how memories can be forgotten through a process called distortion. This does not have to be an intentional process, either. If memory is hazy or missing pieces of information, the brain will fill in those pieces. The memory may feel accurate but is actually distorted.
*CAUSES OF FORGETTING*:-
*CAUSES OF FORGETTING*:-
1.* Inadequate impression at the time of learning*: Inadequate or improper learning is likely to be forgotten. Sometimes we do not care to learn a thing or pay least attention to it. This type of inadequate learning in most of the cases can be a real cause of forgetting.
2. *Lapse of time*: With the passage of time what we learn, gets weaker and finally fades away.
3. *Poor health and defective mental state*: A sound body is said to have a sound mind. Deterioration in health makes an individual less confident. He remains in a state of tension and thus is unable to concentrate upon a thing. He is unable to learn it effectively nor can he recall it.
4. *Repression*: Repression is the active process of forgetting an experience because one wants to forget it. This kind of forgetfulness is wishful. Actually we forget the things which we don‘t want to remember. e.g. we forget to attend the marriage party which we don‘t want to attend.
5. *Emotional Disturbance*: Fear, anxiety, stage fright may paralyze recall. Rise in emotions like fear or anger or love lead to forget the learned experiences e.g. a student afraid of a teacher may forget what has been learnt.
6. *Alteration of stimulus condition*: Sometimes forgetting occurs when we have alteration of the stimulating conditions between the time of learning and the time of recall. e.g. a child who learns the meaning of words like cat, rat etc. with the help of pictures feel a great difficulty in naming them in the absence of such pictures.
7. *Forgetting due to interference of association*: It means we forget something because what we have learned previously interferes with the remembering of what we learn afterwards. The interfering effects of associations can work both ways, forward and backward. In retroactive inhibition later learning interferes with earlier learning. In proactive inhibition earlier learning interferes with later learning.
8. *Change of stimulus conditions*: We may have learnt in a specific environment, but we forget in the changed environment e.g. we can say the speech well at home but in front of the audience, we are unable to speak.
9. *Poor Health*: This prevents us from remembering learnt material.
10. *Defective mental state, fatigue, lack of interest or willingness all lead to forgetting*.
*Factors that help to minimizing Forgetting*
or
*Factors which help to improve Memory*
2. *Over learning*: Forgetting takes place as soon as we stop learning. So we must recall immediately after we have learnt & it must continue after intervals. Learning must be carried beyond the point where recall is just barely possible. Over learning, beyond the point of complete mastery, strengthens the impressions in the brain.
3. *Periodic review*: This is very similar to self recitation thus as soon as we learn we start the review of the data. Reviews at frequent intervals prevent the decay of the learnt data or information.
4. *Kind of Material*: Easy, simple, meaningful and logically related materials are easy to retain & forgotten less rapidly. Thus general concepts, scientific interpretations are better retained. Meaningless materials are forgotten quickly. Thus associations make material meaningful & quick to remember.
5. *Intention to Learn*: Firm determination or strong will to learn is required to achieve success. Same material may be given to sets of students wherein one is willing & other is not willing to learn. In such cases, retention is greater in those students who had a determination to learn.
6. *Proper Methods of Learning*: Economical method must be chosen depending on the material to be learnt, so we chose Spaced versus Mass or Whole versus Part learning.
7. *Self recitation*: After reading a lesson a few times, the student must try to review the whole thing without the help of a book. This method may also be termed as attempted recall and it makes a more economical use of one‘s study time. It also helps towards permanent retention.
*How can we improve the way we learn?*
2. *Use Multiple sensory learning*: Things are better remembered when presented through more than one sense e.g. Matter which is heard & written on the blackboard is retained better than only hearing something.
3. *Rehearse and Recite*: Rehearsal & recitation are useful in memorizing as self evaluation is possible and learning can be modified accordingly.
4. *Space your learning*: Spacing what we learn or distributed learning helps better retention of learning as things learnt in small parts are retained longer.
5. *Follow the principle of association*: Associating what we are learning with what we already know helps in remembering . e.g. A for apple, Z for zebra etc.
6. *Use Correlation*: Topics must not be taught or learnt in water tight compartments. Correlate with experiences & related subjects to make learning interesting.
7. *Grouping & rhythm*: e.g. multiplication tables and poems are easy to learn because of grouping & rhythm. Use of Mnemonics also aids learning.
8. *Whole to Part to Whole*: Before intensive study, go through the whole matter, understand it, break it to parts & then study it as a whole following the whole to part to whole method.
9. *Take breaks*: Periods of change, rest & sleep helps remove fatigue & monotony. Fresh mind stores meaningful experiences for longer time.
10. *Over learn*: Over learning helps retention. Review and revise very often.
11. *Avoid interference of subject similarity*: Interference causes forgetting so similar situations, subjects, etc .must be spaced out. Complete the work, do sufficient drill work & then begin the next learning situation.
12. *Good Environment*: Better learning environment makes learning interesting & vivid by using teaching aids , adopting new methods and techniques.
*Educational Implications of forgetting*
1. The greater the acquaintance with the material the greater will be the remembrance. Hence over learning is a must.2. Comprehensive and thorough initial learning or teaching should be undertaken.
3. Distributed practice should be encouraged rather than massed practice, because it enables the learner to learn without the on- set of fatigue, Hence either in learning of skills or memorization of material, distributed practice should be undertaken, taking as large wholes as possible.
4. Association with previous knowledge and with pleasant atmosphere should be aimed at in teaching to lead to a better acquisition of knowledge.
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Memory decay factors
Memory lapse causes
Memory deterioration theories
Memory loss triggers
Forgetfulness factors
Memory degradation reasons
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Memory erosion causes
Memory fade factors
Memory degradation factors
Memory lapse prevention
Memory degradation prevention
Cognitive decline prevention
Memory retention strategies
Memory deterioration prevention
Memory decay prevention
Memory loss mitigation
Cognitive health maintenance
Memory preservation techniques
Memory loss management
Concept of forgetting
Displacement theory of forgetting
Multi-Store model of memory
The primacy effect
The recency effect
Trace decay theory of forgetting
Interference theory of forgetting
Retroactive interference
Proactive interference
Retrieval failure theory of forgetting
Retrieval cues
Semantic cues
State-dependent cues
Context-dependent cues
Consolidation theory of forgetting
Motivated theory of forgetting
Gestalt theory of forgetting
Causes of forgetting
Emotional disturbance
How to minimise forgetting
Factors that help to minimise forgetting
How to improve memory
Factors which help to improve memory
Ways to improve learning skills
Multiple sensory learning
Educational implications of forgetting
**FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS AND THEIR ANSWERS ON FORGETTING
*Q.1. What is a fun fact about forgetting?*
A.1. Brains may be programmed to forget infancy.Scientists previously thought that early memories were there, but children just didn't have the language skills to verbalize them. However, recent research shows that children do make memories during their early years, but then forget through deliberate mechanisms.
*Q.2. How many theories of forgetting are there in psychology?*
A.2. In psychology, there are five popular theories of forgetting. The five popular theories of forgetting are trace decay theory, displacement theory, retrieval theory, interference theory, and the consolidation theory of forgetting.
*Q.3. What is the main cause of forgetting?*
A.3. Forgetfulness can arise from stress, depression, lack of sleep or thyroid problems. Other causes include side effects from certain medicines, an unhealthy diet or not having enough fluids in your body (dehydration). Taking care of these underlying causes may help resolve your memory problems.
*Q.4. What is forgetting disease called?*
A.4. Alzheimer's is a brain disease that causes a slow decline in memory, thinking and reasoning skills.
*Q.5. What is abnormal forgetting?*
A. 5. Abnormal forgetting caused by mental and physical trauma is called amnesia as it is a disorder in which: one can't remember an event due to brain injury. one can't form new memories due to trauma or stress. one can't recall old memories due to ill-effect of alcohol.
*Q.6. Why do we forget dreams?*
A.6. We forget dreams because of brain chemistry. Neurotransmitters like norepinephrine, crucial for memory, are at lower levels during REM sleep. Some scientists believe this could be the brain's way of filtering out unnecessary information, allowing only significant dreams or emotions to be stored in your long-term memory.
*Q.7. What is responsible for forgetting?*
A.7. Interference-based forgetting has been widely studied in experimental contexts and posits that brain activity due to new information presented prior to the learning event (proactive interference) or after the learning event (retroactive interference) attenuates memory expression.
*Q.8. What is natural forgetting?*
A.8. It can be considered a natural form of neuroplasticity, a consequence of our brain rewiring and adapting to the environment. As we discussed, this kind of natural forgetting can occur due to decay, interference or lack of appropriate cues.
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