Unlocking Potential: A Comprehensive Guide to Child Development and Pedagogy
Child Development & Pedagogy
* Dimensions of Development *
* 1. Concept and Principles of Growth and Development *
Growth is defined as an irreversible constant increase in the size of an organ or even an individual cell. Growth refers to the increase in mass and size of a body. Growth refers to an increase in physical size of whole or any of its part and can be measured.
Development is the process where a particular organism, not only grows physically but acquires mental and physiological growth as well. Development refers to the qualitative changes in the organism as whole. Development is a continuous process through which physical, emotional and intellectual changes occur.
Generally Growth and Development are used inter changeable and taken as synonyms terms. After conception in the womb of mother change occur. change is the law of nature. A fertilized egg develops as a fetus. Cycle of change brought about by the process of growth and development takes place in various dimensions physical, mental, social and so on. Both the terms, growth and Development can be used for any change brought about in maturation and learning.
*Source*
Development of the child is a series of orderly Progression of change towards Maturity. Orderly means the arrangement of change. Each change at each stage is dependent upon what preceded it affects what will come later. Development does not take place haphazardly. The term Progressive signifies that changes lead forward and that the direction is towards adaptation which is conducive to survival of the individual.
Growth is generally taken as dimensional augmentation, cellar, multiplication or qualitative change in size, weight and number.
*CONCEPT of Growth and Development*
According to L.D. Crow & Crow (1962), growth refers to Structural and physiological changes and development is concerned with growth as well as those changes in behaviors which result from environmental situations.
Growth takes place when a child grows taller, his bones, muscles and other parts of the body increase in size. Maturation is the unfolding of the characteristics with which the individual is endowed. As the child grows, his mind and body mature and the brain is able to function at a higher level.
Development involves a Series of progressive, orderly and meaningful changes leading to the goals of maturity is attained.
A child or adult may grow very fast, very fat and heavy, but such growth Can hardly be considered development in the sense of advancement to a higher level of maturity.
Actually a person has developed if he is physically healthier or has more sensors motors Skills so that his physical conditions is conducive to greater personal effectiveness. Thus by improving his sensorimotor skills and thereby utilising better the capacities he has received from about two decades of growth, a person can develop even after physical growth stops. Physical growth is quantitative in nature and is usually measured in inches and pounds or their equivalents.
* Development has four basic elements *:
1. Growth
2. Maturation
3. Experiences
4. Social transmission (learning through language, Schooling or training by parents) their development and learning.
Development, growth and maturation are terms which are commonly used to convey the same meaning but there is a significant difference between all these words.
Growth *1. Quantitative Concept *2. Change in the quantitative aspect come into the domain of growth *3.The term growth is used in purely physical sense referring to an increase in size, length , height and weight. *4. Growth is one of the parts of developmental process. *5. Growth described the change which take places in, particular aspects of the body and behaviours of the organism. *6. Growth does not continue throughout life.
*7. The change produced by growth are the Subject of measurement. *8. They may be quantified and are observable in nature. *9. Growth may or may not bring development, A child may grow by becoming fat but this growth may not bring any functional improvement or development.
| Development *1.Qualitative Concept *2.It indicates the changes in the quality or character rather than in quantitative aspects. *3.Development implies overall Change in shape, form or structure resulting in an improved working or function. *4. Development is a wider, and comprehensive term. It refers to overall changes in the individual . *5. Development describes the change in the organism as a whole. *6. Development is a continuous process. It goes from womb to tomb. It does not end with the attainment of maturity. *7. Development, as said earlier implies improvement in functioning and behaviour. *8. They may be qualitative change which are difficult to be measured directly. They are assessed through Keen observation in behavioural situations. *9. Development is also possible without growth as in the cases of some children who do not gain in terms of height weight or size but they do experience functional improvement or development in physical, social, emotional or intellectual aspects. |
* PRINCIPLES OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT *
The change brought about in an individual by the process of growth and development tend to follow some well defined principles. These are known as principle of growth and development. These principles are being described below:
* (a) Principle of continuity *
Development follows continuity. It goes from womb to tomb and never ceases. An individual starting his life from a tiny cell development his body, mind and other aspects of his personality through a continuous stream of development in these various dimensions.
* (b) Rate of growth and Development is not Uniform *
Although development follows continuity yet the rate of growth and development is not steady and uniform at all time. It proceeds more rapidly in the early years of life but shows down in the later year of childhood. Again at the onset of puberty, there is sudden rise in the speed of growth and development but it is not maintained for long. Therefore, at no stage the rate of growth and development show steadiness. It rather take place by fits and starts.
*(c) Uniformity of Pattern *
Although development does not proceed at a uniform rate and show marked individual difference, yet it follows a definite sequence of pattern and is somewhat uniform in the off springs of a species. For example, the motor development and language development in all children seem to follows a definite sequence.
* (d) Development Proceeds from General to Specific Response *
In all Phases of a child’s development, general activity precedes specific activity. His responses are of a general sort before they become of so specific response as reaching similarly, when a newborn infant cries, the whole of the body is involved. With growth, the crying is limited to the vocal cords, eyes etc. In language development the child learns general word before specific.
* (e) Principle of Integration *
While it is true that development proceeds from general to specific or from whole to parts, it is also seen that specific response or part movement are combined in the later process of learning or development. It is the integration of whole and its part as well as of the specific and general responses that makes a child develop satisfactory in the various dimensions of his growth and development.
* (f) Principle of Inter-relation *
The growth and development takes place in various dimensions like physical, mental, social etc. and these are interrelated and interdependent. Growth and development in any one dimension affects the growth and development of the child in other dimensions as well e.g children with above average intelligence are generally found to possess above average physical and social development. The lack of growth is one dimension. If a child having poor physical development then it also tends to regress in emotional, social and intellectual development.
* (g) Development is Predictable *
With the help of the rate of growth and development of a child it is possible for us to predict the range in which his development is going to fall e.g. X-ray of the bones of the wrist of child will tell approximately what his ultimate size will be similarly the knowledge of the present mental ability of a child will help in predicting his ultimate mental development.
* (h) Principle of Developmental Direction *
Kuppu Swamy has thrown light on this principle and he points out two specific facts concerning the direction of development. He says that development is “ cephalic-caudal as well as proximodistal”
As per the principle of cephalic-caudal development, the development proceeds in the direction of the longitudinal axis, first the child gains control over his head and arms and then on his leg on that he can stand.
According to the proximodistal tendency of the development, it proceeds from the center to the periphery. In the beginning child exhibits its control over the large fundamental muscles but afterward due to growth and development of smaller muscles he can exhibit more movements that are refined e.g. Control over the arm and the hand.
* (i) Development is Spiral and not Linear *
The child does not proceed straightly on the path of development with a constant or steady pace. Actually he makes advancement during a particular period but takes rest in the following period to consolidate his development. In advancing further, therefore, he turns back and then moves forward again like a spiral.
* (j) Growth and Development is a Joint Product of Heredity and Environment *
Child at any stage of his growth and development is a joint product of heredity and environment. The forces of heredity and environment directly or indirectly influence his growth and development in any dimension at all times.
* (k) Principle of Uneven Tempo of Growth and Development *
Growth and development is continuous yet rate of development is not uniform. At earlier stages it is quick and slows down in later year of infancy and at the stage of puberty there is sudden rise in growth and development.
* (l) Principal of Unique Development *
All children will first sit up, crawl and stand before they walk. But the individual children will vary in regard to time or age at which they can perform these activities.
* (m) Principle of Interaction of Maturation and Learning *
Growth and development happen as a result of both maturation and learning, maturation refers to changes in a developing organism due to the unfolding and ripening of abilities, characteristics, traits and potentialities present at birth, learning denotes the changes in behavior due to training and/or experience, Maturation and learning interact.
Thus, each child is a changing, growth and developing organism.
How children grow and develop depend on both internal and external environmental factors, some of which we have no control over. Having a good understanding of what children need at each stage of their growth and development helps us raise them better.
Although the terms growth and development are used synonymously, they have different meanings biologically. Growth refers to the incremental changes in physical characteristics such as height, weight, size, etc., while development refers to qualitative changes of growth in an orderly and meaningful fashion which results in maturity. Growth and development contribute to each other, are inseparable, and occur simultaneously. For example, most babies, by the time they grow up to be 8 months old, can weigh around 8 to 10 kilograms and can sit up.
* Factors That Influence the Growth and Development of a Child *
Nature and nurture both contribute to the growth and development of children. Although what’s endowed by nature is constant, nurture tends to make a big difference too. Here are a few factors affecting children’s growth and development.
* 1. Heredity *
Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to children through their genes. It influences all aspects of physical appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the colour of the eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes. Diseases and conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc., can also be passed through genes, thereby affecting the growth and development of the child adversely. However, environmental factors and nurturing can bring the best out of the already present qualities in the genes.
* 2. Environment *
The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and it represents the sum total of physical and psychological stimulation the child receives. Some of the environmental factors influencing early childhood development involve the physical surroundings and geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his social environment and relationships with family and peers. It is easy to understand that a well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one; the environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to this. A good school and a loving family build in children strong social and interpersonal skills, which will enable them to excel in other areas such as academics and extracurricular activities. This will, of course, be different for children who are raised in stressful environments.
* 3. Sex *
The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth and development of a child. Boys and girls grow in different ways, especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller and physically stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during adolescence, while boys mature over a longer period of time. The physical structure of their bodies also has differences which make boys more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour. Their temperaments also vary, making them show interest in different things.
* 4. Exercise and Health *
The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline or children deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them grow. Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sports activities which help the body gain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass. Proper exercise helps children grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening the immune system, especially if they play outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to microbes that help them build resistance and prevent allergies.
* 5. Hormones *
Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various functions of our bodies. They are produced by different glands that are situated in specific parts of the body to secrete hormones that control body functions. Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioural problems and other diseases. During puberty, the gonads produce sex hormones which control the development of the sex organs and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls.
* 6. Nutrition *
Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to build and repair itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect the growth and development of children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to obesity and health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart disease. A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats is essential for the development of the brain and body.
* 7. Familial Influence *
Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and determining the ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents or foster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthy functional individuals. The most positive growth is seen when families invest time, energy and love in the development of the child through activities, such as reading to them, playing with them and having deep meaningful conversations. Families those abuse or neglect children would affect their positive development. These children may end up as individuals who have poor social skills and difficulty bonding with other people as adults. Helicopter parenting also has negative effects as they render children dependent on the parents’ even as young adults and unable to deal with difficulties in life on their own.
* 8. Geographical Influences *
Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to be. The schools they attend, the neighbourhood they live in, the opportunities offered by the community and their peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a child’s development. Living in an enriching community that has parks, libraries and community centres for group activities and sports all play a role in developing the child’s skills, talents, and behaviour. Uninteresting communities can push some children to not go outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the weather of a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies and other health conditions.
* 9. Socio-Economic Status *
The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a child gets. Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits in the long run. Well-off families can also offer better learning resources for their children and they afford special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not have access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their full potential. They may also have working parents who work too many hours and cannot invest enough quality time in their development.
* 10. Learning and Reinforcement *
Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with building the child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and socially so they operate as healthy functional individuals in the society. This is where the development of the mind takes place and the child can gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons learned. An example is playing a musical instrument; they get better at playing it as they practice playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson that is taught has to be repeated until the right results are obtained.
Although nature contributes much to the growth and development of children, nurture contributes much more. As mentioned earlier, some of these factors may not be controllable, and you’ll have to make do with what you have. But there are certain things you can definitely ensure for your child. This includes ensuring that your child gets enough rest every day, because his development is heavily dependent on the amount of sleep he gets. Pay close attention to your child’s nutritional and exercise levels, as these too play an important role in promoting your child’s timely and healthy growth and development.
* Stages of Growth & Development *
* From infancy to adulthood *
Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan. Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships.
* Physical Domain *
Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that paediatricians consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s fine and gross motor skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. But we may not realize that physical development also involves brain development, which not only enables childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between emotions and planning in adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in infancy or childhood. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every age and stage across the lifespan.
* Cognitive Domain *
Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents develop the ability to think logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters with adults as they exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as does practical intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain development and the brain’s ability to change and compensate for losses is significant to cognitive functions across the lifespan, too.
* Psychosocial Domain *
Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and socially. Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and attachment are significant. As the social world expands and the child grows psychologically, different types of play and interactions with other children and teachers become important. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. Peers become more important for adolescents, who are exploring new roles and forming their own identities. Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into adulthood. Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar (and some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying.
As you may have already noticed, physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development are often interrelated, as with the example of brain development. We will be examining human development in these three domains in detail throughout the modules in this course, as we learn about infancy/toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood development, as well as death and dying.
Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal
Periods of Human Development
Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages:
1. Prenatal Development
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood
3. Early Childhood
4. Middle Childhood
5. Adolescence
6. Early Adulthood
7. Middle Adulthood
8. Late Adulthood
In addition, the topic of “Death and Dying” is usually addressed after late adulthood since overall, the likelihood of dying increases in later life (though individual and group variations exist). Death and dying will be the topic of our last module, though it is not necessarily a stage of development that occurs at a particular age.
The list of the periods of development reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and adulthood that will be explored in this book, including physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes. So while both an 8-month-old and an 8-year-old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, cognitive skills, and social relationships. Their nutritional needs are different, and their primary psychological concerns are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18-year-old and an 80-year-old, both considered adults. We will discover the distinctions between being 28 or 48 as well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.
Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. There are various approaches to labor, delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine. The influences of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident. Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature and nurture on human development.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations.
Early Childhood
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others.
Early childhood education is a crucial foundation for lifelong learning and development. It encompasses the formative years from birth to age eight, where children acquire essential skills and knowledge. High-quality early childhood education programs focus on cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development, ensuring a well-rounded approach to learning. These programs foster creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving abilities, preparing children for future academic success. Moreover, early childhood education helps in building a strong foundation for literacy and numeracy, which are vital for later educational achievements. Parents and educators play a pivotal role in this process, creating a nurturing and stimulating environment that promotes a love for learning. Investing in early childhood education not only benefits individual children but also contributes to the overall well-being and prosperity of society.
Middle Childhood
The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient during this period.
Adolescence
Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk-taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one’s own identity. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics.
Early Adulthood
Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood (students who are in their mid to late 30s may love to hear that they are young adults!). It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life. In recent decades, it has been noted (in the U.S. and other developed countries) that young adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting longer to move out of their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children. One psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed that there is a new stage of development after adolescence and before early adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still exploring their identities and don’t quite feel like adults yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles.
Middle Adulthood
The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others and the future, middle-aged adults may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.”
Late Adulthood
This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “young old” (65-74 years old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years old). The young old are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active. The old old have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in need of long term care. However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age).
Death and Dying
The study of death and dying is seldom given the amount of coverage it deserves. Of course, there is a certain discomfort in thinking about death, but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance that can come from studying death and dying. Factors such as age, religion, and culture play important roles in attitudes and approaches to death and dying. There are different types of death: physiological, psychological, and social. The most common causes of death vary with age, gender, race, culture, and time in history. Dying and grieving are processes and may share certain stages of reactions to loss. There are interesting examples of cultural variations in death rituals, mourning, and grief. The concept of a “good death” is described as including personal choices and the involvement of loved ones throughout the process. Palliative care is an approach to maintain dying individuals’ comfort level, and hospice is a movement and practice that involves professional and volunteer care and loved ones. Controversy surrounds euthanasia (helping a person fulfil their wish to die)—active and passive types, as well as physician-assisted suicide, and legality varies within the United States.
Characteristics of stages of development with special reference to Adolscence
What is adolescence?
Adolescence (10-19 years) is a phase of life which has recently gained recognition as a distinct phase of life with its own special needs. This phase is characterized by acceleration of physical growth and, psychological and behavioural changes thus bringing about transformation from childhood to adulthood.
Adolescence has been described as the transition period in life when an individual is no longer a child, but not yet an adult. It is a period in which an individual undergoes enormous physical and psychological changes. In addition, the adolescent experiences changes in social expectations and perceptions. Physical growth and development are accompanied by sexual maturation, often leading to intimate relationships. The individual’s capacity for abstract and critical thought also develops, along with a sense of self-awareness when social expectations require emotional maturity.
Age Groups
Adolescents are defined as individuals in the 10-19 year age group, “youth” as the 15-24 year age group. The Government of India, however, in the National Youth Policy defines youth as the 15-35 age group and adolescents as 13-19 years.
“Adolescence” is recognised as a phase rather than a fixed time period in an individual’s life.
It is important to note that adolescents are not a homogenous group. Their needs vary with their sex, stage of development, life circumstances and the socio-economic conditions of their environment.
Developmental Characteristics of Adolescents
Adolescence, the transition between childhood and adulthood, is a stressful period of life characterised by discernible physical, mental, emotional, social and behavioural changes.
Physical development
Rapid and dramatic physical development and growth mark adolescence, including development of sexual characteristics. Marked morphological changes in almost all organs and systems of the body are responsible for the accelerated growth and the changes in contours and sexual organs. In case of boys, active acceleration in growth of coarse pubic hair and facial hair usually precede other signs of puberty such as voice changes. In girls, development of breasts, broadening of hips and rapid growth in height usually begins about two and a half years before menarche.
Emotional development
Adolescents have to cope, not only with changes in their physical appearance, but also with associated emotional changes and emerging and compelling sex urges. Bodily changes cause emotional stress and strain as well as abrupt and rapid mood swings. Getting emotionally disturbed by seemingly small and inconsequential matters is a common characteristic of this age group.
Hormonal changes are likely to result in thoughts pertaining to sex, irritability, restlessness, anger and tension. Attraction to the opposite sex leads to a desire to mix freely and interact with each other. However, in reality, this may not always be possible, partly due to societal restrains on pre-marital sexual expressions and also because of other priority needs in this period, viz. education, employment, etc. Hence, it becomes almost necessary for adolescents to learn how to face and deal patiently with the turbulence they face. It requires development of a sense of balance and self-imposition of limits on expression of one’s needs and desires. An inability to express their needs often leads adolescents to fantasize and daydream which help them to at least partially fulfil their desires.
Adolescence is also marked by development of the faculty of abstract thinking that enables them to think and evaluate systematically and detect and question inconsistencies between rules and behaviour. Parents as well as service providers often overlook this development, one of the basic reasons for the popularly known ‘generation gap’.
Socially, adolescence consists in shifts from dependency to autonomy, social responses to physical maturity, the management of sexuality, the acquisition of skills and changes in peer groupings. The need to be a part of a gang or a large group is replaced by a preference for maintaining fewer, more steady and binding relationships.
Stage with Age | Early Adolescence (ages 11-13 years) | Middle Adolescence (ages 14-15 years) | Late Adolescence (ages 16-18 years) |
Physical Growth | · Puberty: Rapid growth period · Secondary sexual characteristics begin to appear | · Secondary sexual characteristics further develop · 95% of adult height reached | · Physical maturity and reproductive growth levelling off and ending |
Intellectual / Cognition | · Concrete thought dominates “here and now” · Cause and effect relationships are underdeveloped · Stronger “ Self” than “Social awareness” | · Growth in abstract thought · Reverts to concrete thought under stress · Cause and effect relationships are better understood · Highly self-absorbed | · Abstract thought established · Future oriented; able to understand, plan and pursue long term goals · Philosophical and idealistic |
Autonomy | · Challenge the authority of family structure · Lonely · Wide mood wings · Begins to reject childhood likings · Argumentative and disobedient | · Conflict with family predominates due to ambivalence about emerging independence | · Emancipation: Vocational/ technical/college and/ or work · -adult lifestyle |
Body Image | · Preoccupied with physical changes and critical of appearance · Anxiety about secondary sexual characteristics · Peers are idealized as a standard for normal appearance (comparison of self with peers) | · Less concern about physical changes but increased interest in personal attractiveness · Excessive physical activity alternating with lethargy | · Usually comfortable with body image |
Peer Group | · Intense friendship with same sex · Contact with opposite sex in groups | · Strong peer allegiances- fad behaviours · Sexual drives emerge and adolescents begin to explore ability to date and attract a partner | · Decisions /Values less influenced by peers · Relates to individuals more than to peer group · Selection of partner based on individual preference |
Identity Development | · "Am I normal?" · Day dreaming · Vocational goals change frequently · Begin to develop own value system · Emerging sexual feelings and sexual exploration · Imaginary audience · Desire for privacy · Magnify own problems: "no one understands" | · Experimentation - Sex, drugs, friends, jobs, risk-taking behaviour | · Pursue realistic vocational goals or career employment · Relates to family as adult · Begin to distinguish their imaginations from real · Establishment of sexual identity, sexual activity is more common |
Social/Behavioural Development
· Searching for identity, influenced by gender, peer group, cultural background and family expectations
· Seeking more independence. Seeking more responsibility, both at home and at school.
· Looking for new experiences. May engage in more risk-taking behaviour.
· Thinking more about 'right' and 'wrong'.
· Influenced more by friends' behaviour- sense of self and self-esteem
· Starting to develop and explore a sexual identity
· Communicating in different ways. Communication with peers through internet, mobile phones and social media
Problems during adolescence
Adolescents today are more vulnerable to health implications due to their nature of experimenting and exposure to limited information regarding issues affecting their health and development. Problems in this age are related to their physical and emotional development and search for identity and risky behaviour.
Physical Changes Normal growth - anxiety and tension Increase in height and weight-malnutrition and anaemia Breast development –stooping of shoulders, abnormal posture and back pain Skin becomes oily –acne Body image –requirement for protein, energy, prevalence of malnutrition | Sexual Development Changes Desire to have sex -unsafe sex, unwanted pregnancy, RTI/STI, HIV/AIDS Ejaculation-fear, guilt, myths and emotional problem Masturbation –myths, confusion, inadequate knowledge Menstruation–menstrual disorder, unhygienic practices leads to RTI/STI | Emotional & Psychological Changes Development of self-identity-confusion Curiosity –risk taking behaviour , eating behaviour and life style disorders such as smoking, alcohol and drugs Relationships –peer pressure , parental relationships and sexual relationships |
*Priority health problems of Adolescents and role of health workers*
· Nutritional problems
· Psychosocial problems
· Acute and chronic diseases
· Substance abuse
* Role of Health workers to attain and maintain the optimum health*
· Provide necessary and adequate information to adolescents parents and public
· Collaboration with teachers, parents, institutions to help adolescents
· Use of IEC (Information, education, Communication)
* Profile of Adolescents in India *
* · Adolescents comprise a sizeable population - there are 243 million adolescents comprising nearly one-fifth of the total population (21.4%).
* · Composition varies by age and sex - Of the total population, 12.1% belong to 10-14 age group and 9.7 % are in the 15-19 age group. Female adolescents comprise 46.9% and male adolescents 53.1 % of the total population.
* · At national level 27% of 15-19 year old girls (33% rural and 15% urban) are already married as compared to only 4% rural and 1% urban men in same age group. According to NFHS-3, 47% of currently married women aged 20-24 were married before 18 years of age.
* · Maternal mortality rate due to teenage pregnancy is 9% (2007-2009) – A high risk of pregnancy and childbirth results in a high level of female mortality in the reproductive age group. Maternal mortality of teenage mothers is a grave cause for concern. TFR amongst 15-19 yrs old is 14% in urban and 18% in rural of the total fertility (NFHS 3)
* · There are marked inequalities in education among adolescents in India. 53% dropout during class 1 - 10, only 2.35% adolescent continue higher secondary education with high dropout rate for both girls and boys.
* · Economic compulsions force many to work - Nearly one out of three adolescents in 15-19 years is working - 20.6 % as main workers and 11.7 % as marginal workers. Economic compulsions force adolescents to participate in the workforce. Despite adult unemployment, employers like to engage children and adolescents because of cheap labour.
* · Findings from (NFHS 3) indicate that as many as 56% of females and 30% of males in the 15 - 19 age group are anaemic. In 15 - 19 yrs age group 47% females and 58% males are thin and 2.4% females and 2% males suffer from obesity.
* · More than 33% of the diseases burden and almost 60% of premature deaths among adults can be associated with behaviors or conditions that began or occurred during adolescence for eg. Tobacco, alcohol use, poor eating habits, sexual abuse and risky sex (WHO 2002).
* · Crimes against adolescents are prevalent - Sexual abuse of both boys and girls cuts across economic and social classes. According to a survey, in 84 % cases, the victims knew the offenders and 32 of the offenders were neighbours. Crimes against girls range from eve teasing to abduction, rape, prostitution and violence to sexual harassment. Unfortunately, social taboos prevent these crimes from being registered. Even when registered, prosecution rarely takes place.
* · Unmet need for contraceptives - The contraceptive knowledge is quite high among adolescents but there are high gaps between knowledge and usage. Only 23% of married girls reported use of any contraceptive method.
* · Trafficking and Prostitution has increased - Extreme poverty, low status of women, lax border checks and the collision of law enforcement officials has lead to increase in prostitution. Expansion of trafficking and clandestine movement of young girls has also increased across national and international borders. Misconceptions about HIV/AIDS are widespread - There is a high level of awareness about HIV among young people especially among those who are more literate. As per (NFHS 3) awareness of STls’ and HIV/AIDS was limited in 15-24 yrs age group. Just 19% of young men and 15% of young women reported awareness of STI.
* NEEDS AND PROBLEMS OF ADOLESCENCE *
An individual’s needs and problems influence his development to a great extent. Adolescence is a crucial period in the life of an individual with its characteristic needs and problems of adjustment. Every adolescent has certain needs, the satisfaction of which is essential to his continued physical and others aspects of development. A need is a tension within an organism which must be satisfied for the well being of the organism. When a need is satisfied the tension is released and the individual experiences satisfaction. There are certain basic needs which are functioning in every individual. They are broadly classified into Physiological needs and Psychological needs.
* Primary or Physiological Needs *: The fulfilment of physiological needs is inevitable because they are concerned with the very existence of the individual. The need for oxygen, need for water and food, need for rest and sleep, need for sex gratification etc. are very important physiological needs.
* Secondary or Socio-Psychological Needs *: Needs that are associated with socio-cultural environment of an individual are called secondary needs. They are acquired through social learning and their satisfaction is necessary for the psychological well being of the individual. The important socio-psychological needs are as follows:
*1. Need for security: The adolescent need emotional, social and economic security in addition to physical security. The person who lacks the feeling of security may become maladjusted. The need for social security is associated with man’s desire for gregariousness.
*2. Need for Love: Affection or love is one of the most basic psychological needs of the adolescents. Adolescents have a strong desire to love and to be loved. The individual who is not loved will not develop proper attitudes and concepts concerning his own worth. Proper love will strengthen the individuals feeling of security.
*3. Need for approval: There is a carving for recognition in adolescents. His ego gets satisfaction when he is recognized and approved. The adolescent desire that he should be a centre of attraction for the opposite sex and his abilities, intelligence and capacities should be recognized by others. The teachers should find out the field in which the pupil can shine very well and which help him to earn admiration from others.
*4. Need for freedom and independence: Adolescence is a time when the individual is striving to wean himself away from the control of parents and elders. He wants the right to give expression to his feelings, emotions and ideas. He feels annoyed and unpleasant when restriction is imposed on him.
*5. Need for self-expression and achievement: Every adolescent has an inherent desire for the expression of his potentialities. He may have a poet, musician, painter etc. hidden within him and he want to get adequate opportunities for the expression of his potentialities. He experiences satisfaction when he succeeded in them and failure makes him depressed and disappointed. Hence the curriculum should be appropriate for every pupil so as to permit achievement for him.
* Problems of Adolescents with special reference to Indian context *
Any period of development is likely to be accompanied by many potential difficulties. Adolescence is a period of transition from childhood to adulthood that implies many development changes and associated problems. Some of the outstanding problems of Indian adolescence are the following:
*Perplexity with regard to somatic variation*: Every adolescent has more or less difficult task of adjusting to somatic variation which may occur in connection with puberty. The flow of blood during menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys creates worries and give birth to so many fears and anxieties. Since ours is a conservative society, youngsters are less informed about the physical changes that are occurring during puberty. Lack of scientific information about sex hygiene and philosophy make them to satisfy with crude and perverted knowledge about sex related matters. It creates guilt feeling and so many complexes in the minds of the children which makes them introverted and secretive.
*Problems related with intensification of sex-consciousness*: The sudden awakening of sex instinct during adolescence results in intensification of sex consciousness. Adolescents are curious to know about sex related topics and are seeking answers to their innumerable doubts in sexual matters. In our country most of the parents are illiterate and they do not have scientific knowledge of sex problems. Moreover, our social values are different from that of western countries, and hence parents hesitate to discuss sex problems with their children. So the adolescents resort socially unacceptable ways to quench their curiosity and to satisfy their sexual needs. There is also the misguiding of print and electronic media that finally results in sexual maladjustment in adolescents.
*Adjustment difficulties with parents*: Adolescents have a strong desire for freedom and independence. But often it is obstructed by parental oppositions. In Indian context, parental opposition may extend to such areas as choices of friends, choice of education, recreational interests, dress, life-style, hour of going from and coming to the home, mode of behaviour etc. The conflict between parental norms of behaviour and peer group relationships often lead to friction in the relationship and adolescents find it difficult to adjust to the needs and demands of parents. Failure to adjust with the parents may result in revolting against parents and authority.
*Childhood-Adulthood Conflict*: In our society, an adolescent is considered neither as a child nor as an adult. He has to depend on his parents and elders for his physical and emotional needs. But at the same time he wants to hold independent views and opinions like an adult. He can very well manage his own affairs and resist any unnecessary interference from the part of elders. He begins to feel ashamed and embarrassed for the protection and care shown by the parents. He is often treated in an ambiguous manner by parents and teachers. Sometimes they expect him to behave as an adult and at other times, they treat him as a child. The poor adolescent is caught between the role of the child and the adult, which push him into confusion and tension.
*Adjustment difficulties with school discipline*: Most of the adolescents face a great problem in adjusting with school discipline. Sometimes schools expect too much from students who must submit to teachers who may be tyrannical sometimes. Schools should not implant habits of unquestioning obedience that inhibits the growth of young people towards true independence.
*Adjustment difficulties with community*: The adolescent is expected to find his place in a society marked by increasing social isolation and rapid technological changes. This changing world makes it difficult to anticipate and plan for adolescent life. They have difficulty in adjusting their capacity to the demands of the community. At this critical phase most adolescents react by withdrawing into a non-demanding and non-working world of pleasure and satisfaction.
*The Ideal and Reality conflicts*: It is during adolescence an adolescent move from being children to adults - perhaps the single most important and grandest set of changes - others may not know how they feel about themselves, but we should.
The disparity between ideal and actual can produce confusion and maladaptation, or this disparity can be a source of motivation and aspiration for adolescents who are searching for identity. As the adolescence represents a fascinating transitional period, marked by the emergence of new found cognitive capacities and changing societal expectations.
Parental Influence is much important in this regard, which includes deliberate expression of affection, concern about the adolescent's problems, harmony in the home, participation in family activities, availability to give organized help when needed or asked for, setting clear and fair rules, understanding peer influences on self-esteem, etc. can help the adolescents to a great extent.
*Adolescent – Parent Attachment*: Conflict between adolescents and parents itself is not a sign of poor relationship quality, but it is the result of the rapid neurological, cognitive and social changes of adolescence create a socio-cognitive dilemma for youth: that is, maintaining connection with parents while exploring new social roles away from the family and developing attachment relationships with peers and romantic partners.
Now the question is: what do adolescents need from their parents to sustain healthy attachment? It is a fact that the successful transition of adolescence is not achieved through detachment from parents but a healthy transition to autonomy and adulthood is facilitated by secure attachment and emotional connectedness with parents. It is better understood by parents that, adolescents who feel understood by their parents and trust their commitment to the relationship, even in the face of conflict, confidently move forward toward early adulthood.
The ability of parents, teachers, the elders, etc. to sustain a ‘goal-directed partnership’ with adolescents in their daily routine by all means will remain them confident and secure and protect them from all modes of newly emerged social evils like improper and immature usage of social medias.
* Parenting Styles: Concept and its impact on Child Development *
Have you noticed that some children from the get-go are more confident and extroverts, while some are timid and shy? This can be attributed to many factors, one of which is the parenting styles that their parents employ. Let us learn about the four distinct parenting styles and how they affect the growth and behaviour of the children.
Parenting Styles
Parents are the first and best teachers in their children’s lives. How children interact with their parents will dictate a major part of their lives. Thus, parents must make sure that their parenting style is best suited to the nature and the potential of their child. The child’s growth and development will depend with how you raise and discipline them.
Development psychologist Diana Baumrind first identified the four distinct parenting styles by identifying the behaviour of the children. Let us learn about the four distinct parenting styles and their impacts.
*1] Authoritarian Parenting*
Authoritarian parents are highly demanding parents. They demand from their children a high level of achievements across all fields. They believe their kids should follow the rules set by the parents, no exceptions. They demand blind obedience from the children.
They also believe in enforcing the consequences of disobedience. And rather than discipline the child they favour punishments. The point is not to teach the child to make better choices but for them to regret their actions.
Usually this parenting style comes with many drawbacks. The children may learn obedience, but they never learn to think for themselves. There is a good chance that the children become aggressive or angry and even possibly hostile.
*2] Authoritative Parenting*
Authoritative parents also have high expectations from their kids, but they do not disregard the input of the kids themselves. They are more responsive and kinder than authoritarian parents. In fact, they make great efforts to ensure that their kids grow up in a positive environment.
Even while disciplining their children, they explain their actions and the reasons. They try to teach children the consequences to their actions. So while ultimately the parents are completely in charge, the kids feel heard and understood. This makes the children happy and well-rounded adults.
*3] Permissive Parenting*
Such parents will set the rules, but rarely enforce them on their children. And when the children disobey or disregard the rules, there is usually no discipline or consequences for their actions.
Permissive parents tend to only take actions when a serious problem arises. In daily routine, they do not interfere with their children’s lives too much. Their role is more of a friend than a parent.
So usually children with permissive parents do not learn to deal with authority figures in their lives. They also tend to struggle in school since they are not sufficiently motivated. They may also suffer from self-esteem issues.
*4] Uninvolved Parenting*
As the name suggests, these parents do not take an active role in their children’s lives. In fact, they do not know what is happening in the kid’s life. They do not make them follow any rules or discipline them at any stage.
So the children do not get any guidance or knowledge from their parents. They are basically raising themselves with no help from the parents. Sometimes this neglect is unintentional. But intentional neglect can lead to mental and emotional issues in the long run. Children of uninvolved parents often have self-esteem issues as well.
Statistics show that children of authoritative grow up to be the most successful and well-adjusted adults among all the parenting styles. However, it is to be kept in mind that all children are different and have different needs. So parents need to modify their parenting styles to best suit their own children.
* 1. Meaning of Personality *
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychosocial systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment. It is the total quality of an individual’s behaviour as it is shown in his habits, thinking, attitude, interests, manner of acting and personal philosophy of life.
Personality is more than the sum total of an individual’s traits and characteristics. It is expressed through his behaviour. The characteristic combinations of behaviour distinguish one individual from another giving each a unique personality and identity.
The term personality is derived from the Latin word persona meaning the mask used by the actors when they come on the stage. Thus the term means the social mask people wear as they assume the roles that societal conventions and traditions impose on them.
* 2. Definitions of Personality *
1. Gordan Allport: Defines “Personality” as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment”.
2. RS Woodworth: “Personality is the total quality of the individual’s behaviour”.
3. Cattel: “Personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation”.
4. NL Munn: “Personality is the most characteristic integration of an individual structure, mode of behaviour, interests, attitudes, capacities, abilities and aptitudes”.
5. Eysenck: “Personality is more or less stable and enduring organization of the person’s characters, temperament, intellect and physique which determine his unique adjustment to the environment”.
No single definition of personality is acceptable to all psychologists. However, they agree that personality includes the behaviour pattern of person shows across situations or the psychological characteristics of the persons that lead to those behavioural patterns.
* 3. Development of Personality*
* 1. Influences of Biological Factors, Culture and Family *:
Man is a product of hereditary influence and his learning experiences. Research, especially that involving twins, has uncovered evidence for a genetic contribution to personality is also determined by the situations people find themselves in.
Personality depends partly on inherited predispositions and abilities. It is shaped through classical conditioning, and operant conditioning in life. The family is the most important influence in teaching responses, later other social influences become more prominent.
* 2. Inherited Predisposition *:
Everyone has noticed that striking differences exist among infants in the early days of life. One baby comes into the world extremely active, another sluggish, one cries and fuses most of the times another is so lucid that its mother consults the paediatrician to see if anything is wrong.
Sometimes, these differences in the “personality” of infants had to do with diet or temporarily physical conditions, but sometimes they do not. They seem to indicate strong genetic influences. Role of inheritance shows up strongly in the incidence of certain behaviour disorders such as schizophrenia—a personality disorder for which people are frequently hospitalized.
Schizophrenia is marked by some combination of confused, bizarre, big and rigid patterns of thought, inappropriate emotional responses, a deficiency in feeling pleasure or displeasure and sometimes suspiciousness of people. Schizophrenic patients sometimes though not always, have hallucinations and delusions.
* 3. Abilities *:
A person’s abilities are also important traits of his personality; being “brought up”, for example, is a personality characteristics. In-fact intelligence is a trait that can be measured when other traits are in doubt.
Abilities are not only traits of personality but an important influence in the shaping of people to make better adjustments in handling conflicts.
A person’s abilities also influence his personality by providing him with a means of gaining recognition. Intelligence and special abilities permit children and adults as well to develop competence from which they acquire confidence and self-esteem.
Abilities provide motivation since a person with a special talent usually has strong motive to exercise, if he has a kind of competence need.
* 4. Social Learning *:
Social behaviour theory simply applies the principles of learning to the learning of habits that make up personality. The theory recognizes classical conditioning and operant conditioning as two basic kinds of learning. It also tells of observational learning or modelling in which a person acquires a response to a situation simply by observing others making the response.
* 5. Classical Conditioning *:
The responses most often conditioned are emotional responses. Conditional fears are often characteristic ways of behaving in certain situations. Human beings can also be “conditioned” indirectly through language. Many words carry negative unpleasant meaning for example “dirty”, “nasty” and “terrible”.
When such words are paired with certain events, the emotional attitudes connected with the words become attached to the events. This is one way that prejudice is taught.
The mother says to her child “Negroes are dirty” which repeated a few times, conditions the child to have aversive/negative responses to blacks. Another indirect way of acquiring “conditioned” responses is through observational learning. A person sees someone reacting emotionally to a situation and learns to react the same way.
* 6. Operant Conditioning *:
Many personality characteristics are acquired through operant conditioning. A familiar case is a child who throws temper tantrums with attention or with a lollypop. The behaviour tends to be learned and later in life the child is likely to show signs of temper tantrums whenever he wants something.
If on the other hand, he receives no reward for his temper tantrums he will abandon this kind of operant response. Operant responses like classically conditional ones can be acquired indirectly through observational learning or modelling.
* 7. Modelling *:
Human beings learn their characteristic ways of behaving not only through classical and operant conditioning but also through essentially human means of modelling and observational learning.
* 8. Family Influences *:
The family is the most important of all environmental influences in shaping of personality. The family administers the rewards and punishments through which characteristic responses are acquired. It also especially in the early years, provides models for observational training.
Learning in the family, normally a child’s parents are the first teachers he has. They reinforce some kinds of behaviours and discourage others, thus helping to determine his habits, goals and values and also to learn responses and interests appropriate to one sex.
*9. Parental Attitudes and the Self-concept *:
Parents who are themselves well-adjusted of, who love and respect their child, give him a feeling of self-worth and self-confidence; with their praise and love them help him to regard himself as a desirable person.
* 10. Modelling in the Family *:
A child’s parents are his first models as well as his first teachers. Children learn both general attitudes and specific responses by using their parents as models. In the process of modelling, children copy many of the personality characteristics of their parents and take over their moral and cultural standards as well.
* 11. Social Influences *:
Our culture and subculture vary according to atmosphere we live in the city or in a village, in an upper or a lower economic class whenever each culture has its distinctive values, morals and ways of behaving. It lays down rules for child training and the relationships within the family. Thus culture influences personality through a process called socialization.
It indicates many of the characteristics a person will acquire. The parents are the first agents of socialization. Later, playmates, teachers, television and peer groups become important forces in personality developments.
* 4. Assessment of Personality *:
Assessment of personality involves the following, viz. case studies, interviews, rating scale, inventories, projective test. A personality characteristic is the way in which a person normally or usually behaves. A personality test aims to find out what a person typically does.
Personality tests help us to know more about the nature of personality. Most of the personality tests are designed to reveal outward manifestations on the individual’s social stimulus value. Others are intended to reveal the more covert aspects of personality such as unconscious motives and conflicts.
Commonly employed assessment technique may be classified as follows:
Techniques in the Assessment of Personality
* A. Observational method *:
In general, it is used to assess personality from the point of view of its overt manifestation. The three primary techniques involve the use of rating scales, interviews and behavioural techniques.
* Behavioural Tests or Situational Tests *:
The most direct way to predict an individual’s behaviour in a natural situation is to place him in a test situation that closely resembles a natural one. In behavioural tests the examiner actually observes the person’s behaviour in a typical situation subject is unaware that he is being watched the subject behaves as he normally does; for example, to test the honesty of an individual some situations can be created and his reactions can be evaluated in terms of honesty or dishonesty.
Some other tests of this kind are Brook test, putting real or imaginary fine, saving somebody from welfare. Brook test is designed to test the group participating in problem- solving and reveals nature leaders.
* Interviews *:
It is a technique of eliciting information directly from the subject about his personality in face-to-face contacts. It gives an opportunity for mental exchange of ideas and information between the subject and the psychologist. The face-to-face interactions in the interview are of 2 types:
*1. Structured interview *:
This technique adopts a systematic and predetermined approach. Here, the interviewer is definite about the personality traits or behaviour he has to assess and plans accordingly.
Usually, a list of questions are prepared for this purpose and after taking the subject into confidence the psychologist tries to seek answers to their pre-planned questions. He does not only attend the content of the responses but also the poor behaviour and other similar favours.
The limitations of this technique are that it calls for a well-used competent interviewer and is only in terms of above time and money also suffers from the disadvantage in that the subject may hide his feeling or give subjective responses.
* 2. Unstructured interview *:
It is an open interrogation. Hence the interviewer asks the interviewee any question on any subject relevant to the situation. The interviewer here is not restricted to a particular set of predetermined questions. He is at full liberty to ask any question and any number of questions on the issue for which the interview is held.
* 3. Stress interview *:
This is one of the important types of interview held to assess the personality for the selection of any personnel. This interview is held to discover the subject’s capacity to get some emotional and intellectual strain. Stress interviews are the examples of situational techniques.
The interviewer deliberately tries to make anxious in the subject to determine how he or she behaves under stress.
* B. Questionnaire *:
It refers to a drive for securing answers to questions by using a form which respondent fills in. In collecting information from the subject himself about his personality characteristics, a form consists of a series of printed or written questions is used and the subject responds to these questions in the space provided in columns of Yes, No or Cannot say, e.g.
1. Do you enjoy being alone? Yes, No, cannot say.
2. Do you enjoy seeing others succeed? Yes, No, Cannot say.
* C. Projective Techniques *:
*1. Sentence Completion Test *:
This test was originally developed by Ebbing Hans to test intellectual ability. The tests consist of a list of incomplete sentences generally open-ended, which require completion by the subject in one or more words, e.g.
I am worried over___________________________________________ .
My hope in_______________________________________________ .
I feel proud when__________________________________________ .
The sentence completion tests are considered superior to word association because the subject can respond in more than one word. It becomes possible to have great flexibility and variety of responses as a result of which a wider area of personality and experiences may be revealed.
In addition to above-mentioned projective techniques there are play techniques and drawing tests, which are useful in assessing the personality of young ones.
Although these projective techniques are being criticized as being difficult and subjective they are while useful in assessing the personality.
* 2. Interviews and Rating Scales *:
The interview is one of the older methods for attempting to evaluate personality. It is regularly used in two different settings. The employment interview, in which the interviewer attempts to determine the suitability of a person for employment and the counselling interview, where the purpose is to assess personality as a proportion for counselling or psychotherapy.
In a counselling interview a clinician tries to sample as wide range as possible of the person’s feelings and attitudes by getting him to talk about his personal experiences. The interviewer notes not only what things the person talks about but the way he talks about them.
He observes whether some topics appear to make the person uncomfortable and whether he avoids some subjects altogether. From observations in the interview and from other facts of the case, the clinician attempts to construct a picture of the person’s major motives, his sources of conflict and the areas of poor adjustment. Sometimes, he goes a step further and uses a set of rating scales to put his conclusion into a more quantitative form.
* 3. Rating Scale *:
Rating scale comes in several forms. One of the simplest is a 7-point scale that rates the person on such characteristics as honesty, sociability and emotionality. Another scale provides the rate with a number of alternative descriptions so that he can check the alternative that seems most appropriate.
Interviews and rating scales are so simple that anyone can use them to record his impressions of almost any aspects of personality. Their simplicity should not supply only crude measurements that can be unreliable and invalid. Rating scale techniques need to be subjected to the same, vigorous analysis that validity, standard administration and norms used with the more objective test.
* D. Inventories or Questionnaires *:
Self-report measure is a method of gathering data about people by asking them questions about the sample of their behaviour. This sampling of self-report data in them is used to infer the presence of particular personality characteristics.
One of the best examples of this type is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.
Although the original purpose of the measure was to differentiate people with specific sorts of psychological difficulties from those without disturbances, it has been found to predict a variety of other behaviours. This MMPI test was constructed by comparing the responses of normal subjects with those of abnormal individual classified into several diagnostic categories.
Items were given different weights depending on how well they distinguish normal subjects from individuals in a category. In this way 8 different scales were built. In addition a scale for masculinity / femininity was constructed by scoring items that differentiate men from women. Finally a tenth scale was derived by using items that distinguish socially introverted from socially extroverted people.
* The other scales and what they measure are as follows *:
*1. Hypochondriasis (HS) *—exaggerated anxiety about one’s health and pessimistic interpretation and exaggerations of minor symptoms.
* 2. Depression (D) *—feeling of pessimism, worthlessness.
* 3. Hysteria (Hy) *—various ailments such as headaches and paralyses which have no physical basis.
* 4. Psychopathic deviation (PD) *—antisocial and immoral conducts.
* 5. Masculinity/femininity (MF) *—measure of masculine and feminine interests: especially a measure of feminine values and emotional expression in men.
* 6. Paranoia (PA) *—extreme suspiciousness of other people’s motives frequently resulting in elaborate beliefs that certain people are plotting against one.
* 7. Psychoasthneia (PT) *—irrational thoughts that recur and or strong compulsions to repeat seemingly meaningless acts.
* 8. Schizophrenia (SC) *—withdrawal into a private world of one’s own often accompanied by hallucination and bizarre behaviours.
* 9. Hypomania (HA) *—mild elation and excitement without any clear reason.
* 10. Social introversion (ST) *—avoidance of other people and removal of oneself from social group.
* Edwards Personal Preference Schedule * :
The EPPS does not measure abnormal traits as does the MMPI. Rather it is designed to characterize the dominant needs or motives of a person as given by Murray’s list of needs (like abasement, achievement, affiliation, autonomy, etc.).
In constructing his inventory Edwards wanted to avoid a basis found in many personality inventories, the tendency for a subject to make what he considers to be socially desirable responses whether they are true or not. Edwards presents items in parts both equally desirable, that require the person to choose between them. The resulting test has proved a useful one for personality counselling.
* Projective Methods or Projective Tests * :
Projective personality test is a test in which a person is shown an ambiguous stimulus and asked to describe it or tell a story about it. The projective test induces a person to project his own feelings and needs through his responses. The responses are then considered to be projections of what the person is like. The most widely used projective tests are Rorschach test and the thematic apperception test (TAT).
* Rorschach test * :
This test consists of 10 inkblots and psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1924 designed this test. The test consists of showing a series of symmetrical stimuli to people who are then asked what the figures represent to them.
Their responses are recorded and through a complex set of clinical judgments on the part of the examiner, people are classified into different personality types. For instance, respondents who saw a bear in one inkblot are thought to have a strong degree of emotional control according to the rules developed by Rorschach.
* Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) * :
The TAT is another well-known projective test. It consists of a series of 20 pictures about which a person is asked to write a story about what is happening in the picture. In doing so he usually identifies with one of the characters of the picture and his story becomes a thinly disguised autobiographical sketch or a scene, from his own life.
In this way he reveals feelings and desires that he would hesitate to discuss openly or would be unwilling to admit to himself. The stories are then used to draw inferences about the writer’s personality characteristics. The TAT has no standardized scoring. The tester simply notes recurring themes in the stories and from these decides on what is being revealed. The emphasis in the interpretation is on the dominant needs of the person.
Clinical uses of projective tests are as one way of discovering what may be bothering a person. Their judgments from such tests are put together with other data from interviews and objective tests to form a profile of the personality.
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